Open main menuWikipediaSearchMeghalayaLanguageDownload PDFWatchEditFor the geological stage, see Meghalayan.Meghalaya (UK: /meɪˈɡɑːləjə/,[3] US: /ˌmeɪɡəˈleɪə/)[4] is a hilly state in northeastern India. The name means "the abode of clouds" in Sanskrit. The population of Meghalaya as of 2016 is estimated to be 3,211,474.[5] Meghalaya covers an area of approximately 22,430 square kilometres, with a length to breadth ratio of about 3:1.[6]MeghalayaStateSohra, one of the most popular tourist attractions in Northeast India, holds the world record for most rain in a calendar month.Sohra, one of the most popular tourist attractions in Northeast India, holds the world record for most rain in a calendar month.Official seal of MeghalayaSealIN-ML.svgCoordinates (Shillong): 25.57°N 91.88°ECountry IndiaFormation21 January 1972†CapitalShillongLargest cityShillongDistricts11Government • GovernorTathagata Roy • Chief MinisterConrad Sangma (NPP) • LegislatureUnicameral (60 seats) • Parliamentary constituencyRajya Sabha 1 Lok Sabha 2 • High CourtMeghalaya High CourtArea • Total22,429 km2 (8,660 sq mi)Area rank23rdPopulation (2011 census) • Total2,964,007 • Rank23rd[1] • Density130/km2 (340/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+05:30 (IST)ISO 3166 codeIN-MLHDIIncrease 0.650 (medium)HDI rank26th (2017)Literacy75.84% (24th)[1]Official languageEnglish[2]Websitemeghalaya.gov.in† It received the status of a full-fledged State in 1971 by the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act 1971The state is bounded to the south by the Bangladeshi divisions of Mymensingh and Sylhet, to the west by the Bangladeshi division of Rangpur, and to the north and east by India's State of Assam. The capital of Meghalaya is Shillong. During the British rule of India, the British imperial authorities nicknamed it the "Scotland of the East".[7] Meghalaya was previously part of Assam, but on 21 January 1972, the districts of Khasi, Garo and Jaintia hills became the new state of Meghalaya. English is the official language of Meghalaya. Unlike many Indian states, Meghalaya has historically followed a matrilineal system where the lineage and inheritance are traced through women; the youngest daughter inherits all wealth and she also takes care of her parents.[7]The state is the wettest region of India, recording an average of 12,000 mm (470 in) of rain a year.[6] About 70% of the state is forested.[8] The Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion encompasses the state; its mountain forests are distinct from the lowland tropical forests to the north and south. The forests are notable for their biodiversity of mammals, birds, and plants.Meghalaya has predominantly an agrarian economy with a significant commercial forestry industry. The important crops are potatoes, rice, maize, pineapples, bananas, papayas, spices, etc. The service sector is made up of real estate and insurance companies. Meghalaya's gross state domestic product for 2012 was estimated at ₹16,173 crore (US$2.3 billion) in current prices.[9] The state is geologically rich in minerals, but it has no significant industries.[7] The state has about 1,170 km (730 mi) of national highways. It is also a major logistical center for trade with Bangladesh.[6]In July 2018, the International Commission on Stratigraphy divided the Holocene epoch into three,[10][11] with the late Holocene being called the Meghalayan stage/age,[12][13] since a speleothem in Mawmluh cave indicating a dramatic worldwide climate event around 2250 BC had been chosen as the boundary stratotype.[14]History EditAncient EditMeghalaya, along with the neighbouring Indian states, have been of archaeological interest. People have lived here since Neolithic era. Neolithic sites discovered so far are located in areas of high elevation such as in Khasi Hills, Garo Hills and neighbouring states. Here neolithic style jhum or shifting cultivation is practised even today. The highland plateaus fed by abundant rains provided safety from floods and a rich soil.[15] The importance of Meghalaya is its possible role in human history through domestication of rice. One of the competing theories for the origin of rice, is from Ian Glover, who states, "India is the center of greatest diversity of domesticated rice with over 20,000 identified species and Northeast India is the most favorable single area of the origin of domesticated rice."[16] The limited archaeology done in the hills of Meghalaya suggest human settlement since ancient times.[17]After the Conquest of Taraf in 1304, Shah Arifin Rafiuddin, a disciple of Shah Jalal, migrated and settled in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills where he preached Islam to the local people. His khanqah remains in Sarping/Laurergarh on the Bangladeshi border but the part containing his mazar is in Meghalaya on top of Laur Hill.[18]Modern history EditThe British discovery of Camellia sinensis in 1834 in Assam and later companies to renting land from 1839 onwards.[19]Meghalaya was formed by carving out two districts from the state of Assam: the United Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills, and the Garo Hills on 21 January 1972. Before attaining full statehood, Meghalaya was given semi-autonomous status in 1970.[20]The Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia tribes had their own kingdoms until they came under British administration in the 19th century. Later, the British incorporated Meghalaya into Assam in 1835.[7] The region enjoyed semi-independent status by virtue of a treaty relationship with the British Crown. When Bengal was partitioned on 16 October 1905 by Lord Curzon, Meghalaya became a part of the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. However, when the partition was reversed in 1912, Meghalaya became a part of the province of Assam. On 3 January 1921 in pursuance of Section 52A of the Government of India Act of 1919, the governor-general-in-council declared the areas now in Meghalaya, other than the Khasi states, as "backward tracts." Subsequently, the British administration enacted the Government of India Act of 1935, which regrouped the backward tracts into two categories: "excluded" and "partially excluded" areas.At the time of Indian independence in 1947, present-day Meghalaya constituted two districts of Assam and enjoyed limited autonomy within the state of Assam. A movement for a separate Hill State began in 1960.[20] The Assam Reorganisation (Meghalaya) Act of 1969 accorded an autonomous status to the state of Meghalaya. The Act came into effect on 2 April 1970, and an autonomous state of Meghalaya was born out of Assam. The autonomous state had a 37-member legislature in accordance with the Sixth Schedule to the Indian constitution.In 1971, the Parliament passed the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganization) Act, 1971, which conferred full statehood on the autonomous state of Meghalaya. Meghalaya attained statehood on 21 January 1972, with a Legislative Assembly of its own.[20]Geography EditLaitmawsiang landscape, wrapped in fog. Meghalaya is mountainous, and it is the rainiest state of India. The word Meghalaya means, "abode of the clouds".Meghalaya is one of the Seven Sister States of northeast India. The state of Meghalaya is mountainous, with stretches of valley and highland plateaus, and it is geologically rich. It consists mainly of Archean rock formations. These rock formations contain rich deposits of valuable minerals like coal, limestone, uranium and sillimanite.Meghalaya has many rivers. Most of these are rainfed and seasonal. The important rivers in the Garo Hills region are Ganol, Daring, Sanda, Bandra, Bugai, Dareng, Simsang, Nitai and the Bhupai. In the central and eastern sections of the plateau, the important rivers are Khri, Umtrew, Digaru, Umiam or Barapani, Kynshi (Jadukata), Umngi, Mawpa, Umiam Khwan, Umngot, Umkhen, Myntdu and Myntang. In the southern Khasi Hills region, these rivers have created deep gorges and several beautiful waterfalls.Farming on hilly terrain (tea plantation).The elevation of the plateau ranges between 150 m (490 ft) to 1,961 m (6,434 ft). The central part of the plateau comprising the Khasi Hills has the highest elevations, followed by the eastern section comprising the Jaintia Hills region. The highest point in Meghalaya is Shillong Peak, which is a prominent IAF station in the Khasi Hills overlooking the city of Shillong. It has an altitude of 1961 m. The Garo Hills region in the western section of the plateau is nearly plain. The highest point in the Garo Hills is Nokrek Peak with an altitude of 1515 m.Climate EditWith average annual rainfall as high as 12,000 mm (470 in) in some areas, Meghalaya is the wettest place on earth.[21] The western part of the plateau, comprising the Garo Hills region with lower elevations, experiences high temperatures for most of the year. The Shillong area, with the highest elevations, experiences generally low temperatures. The maximum temperature in this region rarely goes beyond 28 °C (82 °F),[22] whereas sub-zero winter temperatures are common.A sign board in CherrapunjiThe town of Sohra (Cherrapunji) in the Khasi Hills south of capital Shillong holds the world record for most rain in a calendar month, while the village of Mawsynram, near Sohra (Cherrapunji), holds the record for the most rain in a year.[23]Flora and fauna EditSee also: Meghalaya subtropical forestsMeghalaya's forests host 660 species of birds[24] and numerous species of other wildlife. Peacock pheasant (top) and hoolock gibbon (bottom) are found in Meghalaya.[25]About 70% of the state is forested, of which 9,496 km2 (3,666 sq mi) is dense primary subtropical forest.[8] The Meghalayan forests are considered to be among the richest botanical habitats of Asia. These forests receive abundant rainfall and support a vast variety of floral and faunal biodiversity. A small portion of the forest area in Meghalaya is under what are known as "sacred groves" (see Sacred groves of India). These are small pockets of an ancient forest that have been preserved by the communities for hundreds of years due to religious and cultural beliefs. These forests are reserved for religious rituals and generally remain protected from any exploitation. These sacred groves harbour many rare plant and animal species. The Nokrek Biosphere Reserve in the West Garo Hills and the Balphakram National Park in the South Garo Hills are considered to be the most biodiversity-rich sites in Meghalaya. In addition, Meghalaya has three wildlife sanctuaries. These are the Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary, the Siju Sanctuary, and the Baghmara Sanctuary, which is also the home of the insect-eating pitcher plant Nepenthes khasiana also called "Me'mang Koksi" in local language.Due to diverse climatic and topographic conditions, Meghalaya forests support a vast floral diversity, including a large variety of parasites, epiphytes, succulent plants and shrubs. Two of the most important tree varieties are Shorea robusta (sal tree) and Tectona grandis (teak). Meghalaya is also the home to a large variety of fruits, vegetables, spices, and medicinal plants. Meghalaya is also famous for its large variety of orchids — nearly 325 of them. Of these, the largest variety is found in the Mawsmai, Mawmluh and Sohrarim forests in the Khasi hills.Nepenthes khasianaMeghalaya also has a large variety of mammals, birds, reptiles and insects.[26] The important mammal species include elephants, bear, red pandas,[27] civets, mongooses, weasels, rodents, gaur, wild buffalo,[28] deer, wild boar and a number of primates. Meghalaya also has a large variety of bats. The limestone caves in Meghalaya such as the Siju Cave are home to some of the nation's rarest bat species. The hoolock gibbon is found in all districts of Meghalaya.[29]Common reptiles in Meghalaya are lizards, crocodiles and tortoises. Meghalaya also has a number of snakes including the python, copperhead, green tree racer, Indian cobra, king cobra, coral snake and vipers.[30]Meghalaya's forests host 660 species of birds, many of which are endemic to Himalayan foothills, Tibet and Southeast Asia. Of the birds found in Meghalaya forests, 34 are on worldwide threatened species list and 9 are on the critically endangered list.[24] Prominent birds spotted in Meghalaya include those from the families of Phasianidae, Anatidae, Podicipedidae, Ciconiidae, Threskiornithidae, Ardeidae, Pelecanidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Anhingidae, Falconidae, Accipitridae, Otididae, Rallidae, Heliornithidae, Gruidae, Turnicidae, Burhinidae, Charadriidae, Glareolidae, Scolopacidae, Jacanidae, Columbidae, Psittacidae, Cuculidae, Strigidae, Caprimulgidae, Apodidae, Alcedinidae, Bucerotidae, Ramphastidae, Picidae, Campephagidae, Dicruridae, Corvidae, Hirundinidae, Cisticolidae, Pycnonotidae, Sylviidae, Timaliidae, Sittidae, Sturnidae, Turdidae, Nectariniidae and Muscicapidae.[24] Each of these families have many species. The great Indian hornbill is the largest bird in Meghalaya. Other regional birds found include the grey peacock pheasant, the large Indian parakeet, the common green pigeon and the blue jay.[31] Meghalaya is also home to over 250 species of butterflies, nearly a quarter of all butterfly species found in India.Demographics EditPopulation EditPopulation Growth CensusPop.%±1951606,000—1961769,00026.9%19711,012,00031.6%19811,336,00032.0%19911,775,00032.9%20012,319,00030.6%20112,964,00727.8%Source: Census of India[32]Ethnic groups 2011:[citation needed]Khasi: 34%Garo: 30.5%Jaintia: 18.5%Bengali: 8.5%Nepali: 2.5%Hajong: 1.2%Biate: 1.1%Koch: 1.0%Tiwa (Lalung): 0.9%Rabha: 0.8%Kuki: 0.5%Shaikh: 0.3%Other: 0.2%Tribal people make up the majority of Meghalaya's population. The Khasis are the largest group, followed by the Garos then the Jaintias. These were among those known to the British as "hill tribes." Other groups include the Hajongs, the Biates, the Koches and related Rajbongshis, the Boros, Dimasa, Kuki, Lakhar, Tiwa (Lalung), Karbi, Rabha and Nepali.Meghalaya recorded the highest decennial population growth of 27.82% among all the seven north-eastern states, as per the provisional report of census 2011. The population of Meghalaya as of 2011 has been estimated at 2,964,007 of which females comprise 1,492,668 and males 1,471,339. As per the census of India 2011, the sex ratio in the state was 986 females per 1,000 males which was far higher than the national average of 940. The urban female sex ratio of 985 was higher than the rural sex ratio of 972.[1]Religion EditLearn moreThis section needs additional citations for verification.Main article: Christianity in MeghalayaReligion in Meghalaya (2011)[33] Christianity (74.59%) Hinduism (11.52%) Islam (4.39%) Sikhism (0.10%) Buddhism (0.33%) Jainism (0.02%) Tribal religions (8.70%) Others (0.35%)Meghalaya is one of three states in India to have a Christian majority. About 75% of the population practices Christianity, with Presbyterians, Baptists and Catholics the more common denominations.[33] .The religion of the people in Meghalaya is closely related to their ethnicity. Close to 90% of the Garo tribe and nearly 80% of the Khasi are Christian, while more than 97% of the Hajong, 98.53% of the Koch, and 94.60% of the Rabha tribes are Hindu.[citation needed]Hindus are the largest religious minority in Meghalaya with 11.52% of the total state's population as of 2011 census[33]Hindus are concentrated mainly in West Garo Hills, East Khasi Hills and Ri-Bhoi with 19.11 percent, 17.55 percent and 11.96 percent respectively.The Nartiang Durga Temple in Meghalaya is a famous Hindu temple and it is one of the 51 Shakti peethas on Earth.[34]Muslims constitute 4.39% of the population[33] The Muslims are concentrated mainly in West Garo Hills with 16.60 percent.[35]Conversion from indigenous to Christianity began in the 19th century under the British era. In the 1830s, American Baptist Foreign Missionary Society had become active in Northeast to convert indigenous tribes to Christianity.[36] Later, they were offered to expand and reach into Cherrapunji Meghalaya, but they lacked the resources to do so and declined. Welsh Presbyterian Mission took the offer and they began work at the Cherrapunji mission field. By the early 1900s, other Protestant denominations of Christianity were active in Meghalaya. The outbreak of World Wars forced the preachers to return home to Europe and America. It is during this period that Catholicism took root in Meghalaya and neighbouring region. In the 20th century, Union Christian College started operations at Barapani, Shillong. Currently, Presbyterians and Catholics are two most common Christian denominations found in Meghalaya.[37]Languages EditLanguages of Meghalaya in 2011 [38] Khasi (33.82%) Garo (31.60%) Pnar (10.69%) Bengali (6.44%) Nepali (1.85%) War (1.73%) Hindi (1.62%) Hajong (1.40%) Assamese (1.34%) Others (9.51%)English is the official language of the state.[39] The most spoken languages in Meghalaya are Khasi (33.82%) and Garo (31.60%) followed by Pnar (10.69%), Bengali (6.44%), Nepali (1.85%), War (1.73%), Hindi (1.62%), Hajong (1.40%) and Assamese (1.34%).[38]Khasi (also spelled Khasia, Khassee, Cossyah, and Kyi) is a branch of the Mon–Khmer family of the Austroasiatic stock and according to 2001 census, Khasi is spoken by about 1,128,575 people residing in Meghalaya. Many words in the Khasi language have been borrowed from Indo-Aryan languages such as Assamese, Bengali and Nepali. Moreover, the Khasi language originally had no script of its own. The Khasi language is one of the very few surviving Mon–Khmer languages in India today.The Garo language has a close affinity with the Koch and Bodo languages, a small family of Tibeto-Burman languages. Garo, spoken by the majority of the population, is spoken in many dialects such as Abeng or Ambeng,[40] Atong, Akawe (or Awe), Matchi Dual, Chibok, Chisak Megam or Lyngngam, Ruga, Gara-Ganching and Matabeng.Pnar is spoken by many people of the both West and East Jaintia Hills. The language is related to the Khasi language. Apart from the main languages, various local dialect are being spoken by the War Jaintia (West Jaintia Hills), Maram and Lynngam (West Khasi Hills), War Pynursla (East Khasi Hills), Tiwa language by Tiwa peoples of Ri-Bhoi district. Another example is the Biate language spoken by many people inhabiting the south-eastern part of Meghalaya bordering Assam.Indo-Aryan languages like Assamese, Bengali, Nepali and Hindi are spoken by many people residing mostly in the East Khasi Hills district and the West Garo Hills district.English is spoken as a common language across the diverse ethnic and demographic groups. In urban centres most of the people can speak English; rural residents vary in their ability.Districts Education Government and politics EditMain articles: Government of Meghalaya and Meghalaya Legislative AssemblyMeghalaya's current Governor is Tathagata Roy.[44]State government EditThe Meghalaya Legislative Assembly has 60 members at present. Meghalaya has two representatives in the Lok Sabha, one each from Shillong and Tura. It also has one representative in the Rajya Sabha.Since the creation of the state the Gauhati High Court has jurisdiction in Meghalaya. A Circuit Bench of the Guwahati High Court has been functioning at Shillong since 1974. However recently in March 2013 the Meghalaya High Court was separated from the Gauhati High Court and now the state has its own High Court.Local self-government Edit To provide local self-governance machinery to the rural population of the country, provisions were made in the Constitution of India; accordingly, the Panchayati Raj institutions were set up. However, on account of the distinct customs and traditions prevailing in the northeast region, it was felt necessary to have a separate political and administrative structure in the region.[citation needed] Some of the tribal communities in the region had their own traditional political systems, and it was felt that Panchayati Raj institutions may come into conflict with these traditional systems. The Sixth Schedule was appended to the Constitution on the recommendations of a subcommittee formed under the leadership of Gopinath Bordoloi, and the constitution of Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) is provided in certain rural areas of the northeast including areas in Meghalaya. The ADCs in Meghalaya are the following:Khasi Hills Autonomous District CouncilGaro Hills Autonomous District CouncilJaintia Hills Autonomous District CouncilEconomy Urban areas Culture and society EditThe main tribes in Meghalaya are the Khasis, the Garos, and the Jaintias. Each tribe has its own culture, traditions, dress, and language.Social institutions Edit Khasi girlsThe majority of the population and the major tribal groups in Meghalaya follow a matrilineal system where lineage and inheritance are traced through women. The youngest daughter inherits all the property and she is the caretaker of aged parents and any unmarried siblings.[7] In some cases, such as when there is no daughter in the family or other reasons, the parents may nominate another girl such as a daughter in law as the heir of the house and all other property they may own.The Khasi and Jaintia tribesmen follow the traditional matrilineal norm, wherein the Khun Khatduh (or the youngest daughter) inherits all the property and responsibilities for the family. However, the male line, particularly the mother's brother, may indirectly control the ancestral property since he may be involved in important decisions relating to property including its sale and disposal. In case a family has no daughters, the Khasi and Jaintia (also called Syntengs) have the custom of ia rap iing, where the family adopts a girl from another family, perform religious ceremonies with the community, and she then becomes ka trai iing (head of the house).[57]In the Garo lineage system, the youngest daughter inherits the family property by default, unless another daughter is so named by the parents. She then becomes designated as nokna meaning 'for the house or home'. If there are no daughters, a chosen daughter-in-law (bohari) or an adopted child (deragata) comes to stay in the house and inherit the property.Meghalaya has one of the world's largest surviving matrilineal cultures.Meghalaya "Civil Society" EditMeghalaya's civil society considers the people of the state as a collective community that exists through civil society organizations (CSOs), and serves the general interests of the public [58] . These organizations include a wide spectrum of non-government organizations (NGOs), other community associations, and foundations. The current status of Meghalaya's civil society and the effectiveness of the many programs is debated by scholars.Civil Society Programs in Meghalaya: EditThere are currently over 181 NGOs within Meghalaya that vary from charities to volunteer services and social empowerment groups [59] [60]. Most civil society organizations are also ethnically affiliated as the interests of different groups are championed between each organization . This in turn causes them to become representatives of ethnic communities around the state since the same individuals from such communities also participate in corresponding organizations that protect their ethnic interests. Three student organizations that represent the major ethnic groups of Meghalaya: Khasi Students' Union (KSU), Jantia Students' Union (JSU), and Garo Students' Union (GSU) embody this example into their overall functions as CSOs by applying pressure to local government in order to ensure that certain rights are being met [58] .There also exists many forms of community associations that revolve around the idea of community building. This includes examples such as sports, religious, educational, and other clubs that aim to establish individuals into different social circles based on their interests [60] .Philanthropic foundations in Meghalaya's civil society strive for the overall well being of its citizens. The Public Health Foundation of India (PHFI) has recently partnered with the government of Meghalaya to improve public health in many rural parts of the state by first strengthening the abilities of non-government organizations to perform such services [61].Civil Society: Current Status and Scholarly Debates EditScholars are divided on the effectiveness Meghalaya's civil society. Some argue for its important role in state development through CSOs, while others point out that their impact is not only limited from above by the central government and its military, but also from below by insurgent groups [62] .Concerns over national security, such as the unification of neighboring hostile countries and local insurgent groups for a possible attack on the Indian state, has served as the longstanding point of emphasis on how the Indian Central Government operates in the Northeast. Different administrative programs have been created to establish peace and stability in this region through economic development [63]. The Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) that was passed in 1958 by the Indian Government granted the Indian Army exclusive powers to maintain order in this area. Many insurgent organizations were also developed alongside cultural and political movements, making it very difficult to distinguish them from what constitutes a civil society [62] . These two factors have combined to enable CSOs to be easily deemed as insurgencies and grouped with other insurgent organizations that were banned by the government, thus restricting Meghalaya's civil society as a whole [62] [64].Traditional political institutions EditAll the three major ethnic tribal groups, namely, the Khasis, Jaintias and the Garos also have their own traditional political institutions that have existed for hundreds of years. These political institutions were fairly well developed and functioned at various tiers, such as the village level, clan level, and state level.[65]In the traditional political system of the Khasis, each clan had its own council known as the Dorbar Kur which was presided over by the clan headman. The council or the Dorbar managed the internal affairs of the clan. Similarly, every village had a local assembly known as the Dorbar Shnong, i.e. village Durbar or council, which was presided over by the village headman. The inter-village issues were dealt with through a political unit comprising adjacent Khasi Villages. The local political units were known as the raids, under by the supreme political authority is known as the Syiemship. The Syiemship was the congregation of several raids and was headed an elected chief known as the Syiem or Siem (the king).[65] The Siem ruled the Khasi state through an elected State Assembly, known as the Durbar Hima. The Siem also had his mantris (ministers) whose counsel he would use in exercising executive responsibilities. Taxes were called pynsuk, and tolls were called khrong, the latter being the primary source of state income. In the early 20th century, Raja Dakhor Singh was the Siem of Khymir.[65]Meghalayafestival[66] Localcalendar month Vediccalendar month Gregoriancalendar monthDen'bilsia Polgin Phalgun FebruaryA'siroka Chuet Chaitra MarchA' galmaka Pasak Vaisakha AprilMiamua Asal Asharha JuneRongchugala Bado Bhadra AugustAhaia Asin Ashwin SeptemberWangala Gate Kartika OctoberChristmas Posi Pausha DecemberThe Jaintias also had a three-tier political system somewhat similar to the Khasis, including the Raids and the Syiem.[67] The raids were headed by Dolois, who were responsible for performing the executive and ceremonial functions at the Raid level. At the lowest level were the village headmen. Each administrative tier had its own elected councils or durbars.In the traditional political system of the Garos a group of Garo villages comprised the A·king. The A·king functioned under the supervision of the Nokmas, which was perhaps the only political and administrative authority in the political institution of the Garos. The Nokma performed both judicial and legislative functions. The Nokmas also congregated to address inter-A·king issues. There were no well-organized councils or durbars among the Garos.[citation needed]Festivals Edit Dance of MeghalayaKhasisDance is central to the culture of Khasi life, and a part of the rites of passage. Dances are performed in Shnong (village), a Raid (group of villages), and a Hima (conglomeration of Raids). Some festivals includes Ka Shad Suk Mynsiem, Ka Pom-Blang Nongkrem, Ka-Shad Shyngwiang-Thangiap, Ka-Shad-Kynjoh Khaskain, Ka Bam Khana Shnong, Umsan Nongkharai, Shad Beh Sier.[66]JaintiasFestivals of the Jaintia Hills, like others, is integral to the culture of people of Jaintia Hills. It celebrates nature, balance and solidarity among its people. Festivals of Jaintias includes Behdienkhlam, Laho Dance, Sowing Ritual Ceremony.[66]GarosFor Garos, festivals sustain their cultural heritage. They were often dedicated to religious events, nature and seasons as well as community events such as stages of jhum cultivation. The main festivals of Garos are Den Bilsia, Wangala, Rongchu gala, Mi Amua, Mangona, Grengdik BaA, Jamang Sia, Ja Megapa, Sa Sat Ra Chaka, Ajeaor Ahaoea, Dore Rata Dance, Chambil Mesara, Do'KruSua, Saram Cha'A, A Se Mania or Tata which celebrated .[66]HajongsHajongs celebrate both traditional festivals and Hindu festivals. The entire plain belt of Garo Hills is inhabited by the Hajongs, they are an agrarian tribe. Major traditional festivals include Pusne', Biswe', Kati Gasa, Bastu Puje' and Chor Maga.BiatesThe Biates have many kinds of festivals; Nûlding Kût, Pamchar Kût, Lebang Kût, Favang Kût etc. for different occasion. However, unlike in the past, they no longer practise or observe those festivals except ‘Nûlding Kût.’ The Nûlding Kût ("renewal of life") festival is observed every January, with singing, dancing, and traditional games—after the Priest (Thiampu) pray to Chung Pathian to bless them in every sphere of life.Spirituality EditIn southern Meghalaya, located in Mawsynram, is the Mawjymbuin cave. Here a massive stalagmite has been shaped by nature into a Shivalinga. According to legend, from the 13th century, this Shivalinga (called Hatakeswarat) has existed in the Jaintia Hills under the reign of Ranee Singa.[68] Tens of thousands of the Jaintia tribe members participate over the Hindu festival of Shivratri (Night of Lord Shiva) every year.[69][70]Living Root Bridges Edit Double-Decker Living root bridge, Nongriat village.The practice of creating Living root bridges can be found in Meghalaya. Here, functional, living, architecture is created by slowly training the Aerial roots of the Ficus elastica tree. Examples of these structures can be found as far west as the valley east of Mawsynram,[71] and as far east as the East Jaintia Hills District,[72] meaning that they are made by both Khasis and Jaintias. Large numbers[73] of these man-made living structures exist in the mountainous terrain along the southern border of the Shillong Plateau, though as a cultural practice they are fading, with many individual examples having disappeared recently, either falling in landslides or floods or being replaced with more standard steel bridges.